Representations & the Media Studies Exam
As you know your media studies exam will be made up of three questions.
The first will always be a textual analysis of either an AV (audio visual) clip, or two print based media texts.
Question two will be a stepped question with two or three parts, with each part progressing in the marks available.
Question three will be a longer essay style question.
Two important facts about questions 2 & 3:
One of the questions will always be about Audience theory, the other will always be about Representations.
The last part of question 2 and all of question 3 will require you to provide: ‘Your own specific examples’
At the beginning of the year you were asked to keep a media diary to help you keep a note of all the different media you encountered and to help you revise the theories we had studied in class by applying it to the media you watch and read in your everyday life.
This booklet aims to help you improve and expand your media diary by researching different types of media with a specific focus on representations of youth.
It is also a guide to help you answer the representations question as fully and theoretically as possible.
Let’s start with the basics:
What is representation and why do we study it?
The easiest way to describe the word is to break it in two: re-presentation. If we were to present something we would show it to the world as it actually is. By re-presenting we can infer that some it has gone through some kind of change or filter or manipulation before it reaches us.
Because we experience people and groups through the media, whether that’s the screens in our living rooms, colleges, bedrooms or pockets, the paper we read in the morning or the magazine we read on the bus, we know that those groups are not being presented to us in person, but re-presented to us through the lens of the camera and the words written by others.
The exam will expect you to know and understand various theories and ideas surrounding the subject of representation and be able to apply these ideas to your own experience of the media.
Here are some questions we can always consider about representations in media texts, and which we will attempt to explore in this booklet:
Key Questions:
- Who or what is being represented?
- Is it a positive or negative representation?
- How is it being established (visually, aurally, juxtaposition against mise-en-scene, use of camera)?
- How does this representation relate to the target audience?
- Is it a stereotypical representation?
- Is it a fair and/or accurate representation?
- Are the representations conventional or subversive?
- Are there representations you expect to see which you would have expected to see which are not in the text?
Traditional Representations of Women
The study of representations has most frequently concerned itself with the analysis of how women are portrayed in the media. Despite making up half of the world’s population it is incredible just how misrepresented women are, in many types of media.
Often this misrepresentation can be seen through the analysis of various stereotypes but we can also consider this to be part of a cultural Hegemony whereby the ideological representation of women has actually been used to the political and cultural advantage of the ruling classes in society.
Not only does this explain why what we might describe as; modern, alternative, post-traditional or even anti-traditional representations of women are noteworthy; but also helps to explain why traditional representations of women are so engrained in our consciousness and are often still used in advertising and magazines.
Before we can consider newer representations of women, it might be useful to consider an older and certainly a traditional representation of women.
To analyse the text we can use a theory that helps us break down the various components of any representation…
3 theories of representation
1. Reflexive approach – that what we see is a straightforward reflection of the real world
2. Intentional approach – where our understanding of reality is created by representations
In media studies we tend to reject both of these ideas. Instead we consider a third approach, which is in between the other two:
3. Constructionist approach – where representations create, or construct meaning, but this is based on a material reality.
In other words any representation is a mixture of:
1. The person or group being represented
2. The opinions of those encoding (making) the representation – through use of symbolic, visual, technical and written codes.
3. The reaction of the target audience
4. The context of the society – how the representation fits in with certain dominant ideologies
ee.g. A 1950s advert for British Gas which represents women in a traditional way…
The person being represented: The woman in this advert is obviously depicted by an illustration, which whilst stylised, still has an element of realism rather than being a caricature. The model selected is youthful with bright white smiling teeth and a tiny waist. One hand holds a saucepan whilst the other is placed on her hip suggesting a confident swagger – the implication is that she ‘owns’ this space, it is her environment.
The opinions of those encoding the representation: Obviously, with the image being an illustration, the encoders have far more control over the representation than the model themselves. In this case the main image reinforces an ideology that women should be slim, neat with a somewhat ‘hourglass’ figure. The image very much presents an ideal of beauty that emphasises the importance of a smart or ‘Handsome’ appearance as reinforced by the anchorage. The main body of the copy also promotes the idea that a woman is at home in the kitchen and that her life is one of domesticity, the model’s apron is worn almost like a uniform and the copy directly refers to the model as a housewife and suggests that women should be proud of an attractive kitchen, of their domain. The ad also represents women as materialistic and acquisitive striving to own the newest and most ‘attractive’ equipment for her kitchen.
The reaction of the target audience: The target audience of this advert clearly fits within the Aspirer and Mainstreamer categories of the 4Cs model. A preferred reading of the text would suggest that the woman in the ad represents the audience, their needs and aspirations. This advert is firmly set within the world of the domestic and the Aspirer audience would be attracted by the idea of being defined by new kitchen equipment.
The context of our society and dominant ideologies: Despite the fact that the Second World War provided women with opportunities to prove their worth within an industrial setting, the 1950s was an era in which much of the mainstream media promoted a ‘business as usual’ ideology. Part of this was the insistence that a woman’s place was in the home, specifically the kitchen! As the country moved away from Wartime austerity women became more brand and fashion conscience and this is reflected by the advert.
It might be easy to dismiss this advert as antiquated and out of touch but when we break the advert down into its various ideological perspectives we can see that modern advertising campaigns and many women’s magazines still carry these ideologies:
- Women are interested in their appearance, clothes, hair etc
- There is an ideal and aspirational body shape
- Women are most at home in a domestic setting
- Women are part of a family context – it’s assumed they’re married or have a (male) partner
- Women enjoy having new things and are acquisitive
RESEARCH POINT: Find examples in modern (within the past ten years) advertising and magazines of what we might consider as a ‘Traditional’ representation of women.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. They are often negative and derogatory but can be sometimes be positive. They have the following characteristics:
- They involve both a categorising and an evaluation of the group being stereotyped.
- They usually emphasise some easily grasped feature(s) of the group, these are often based within:
· Appearance – what they look like, wear, how they speak
· Behaviour – the things they do and say
- Stereotypes often try to insist on absolute differences and boundaries where the reality is that groups of people have a spectrum or variety of differences
- Stereotypes often evaluate groups in a negative way – but this may depend on the reading of the audience
This print advert for a table-top game uses humour but also stereotypes women…
Appearance: The long feminine frock, tiara, flowers and sash are synonymous with that of the beauty pageant – in this case Miss Universe. The model has long blonde hair and red lipstick – all of the hallmarks of what id considered to be conventionally beautiful.
Behaviour: The humour is created through the juxtaposition of the implied purity and innocence associated with beauty pageant competitors and the image of the ‘positive’ pregnancy test.
Ideologies: Whilst the harmless joke is there to emphasise the jeopardy element of the game, the advert stereotypes women as having lives defined either by their looks and appearance, or by being a mother. The suggestion that the two are mutually exclusive reinforces the ideology that women lead limited lives and that their grasp should not exceed their reach!
Many of these ‘traditional’ representations are rejected by many female audiences and do not necessarily reflect the times we live in. As a consequence we have seen the rise of what we might describe as Post-Traditional, or even Anti-Traditional texts. These might be texts that have a feminist ideology at their core or may even be read through a separate framework. For example, Cosmopolitan magazine is far from traditional but at the same time feminists would find some of the representations problematic.
The advert below is an example of an advert which might be considered as a move away from traditional representations of women. It is candid in its representation of sex and implies that women should enjoy their bodies and the pleasure they can offer women. The advert doesn’t depict women as defined by or even needing a man. On the other hand this is not an advert that would necessarily be celebrated by feminists in its depiction of women. The women’s nudity aims to titillate and arguably fetishises the female body. It is also a figure that reinforces an ideal of body shape that some audiences may be unable or unwilling to replicate. A feminist reading may also respond negatively to the fact that the advert emphasises the ideology that women are obsessed with cosmetics and beauty products.
In these ways the advert may be considered as an ‘Anti-Traditional’ representation of women rather than a ‘Post-Traditional’ representation.
RESEARCH POINT: Find examples of representations of women that might be considered Post-Traditional or even Anti-Traditional. This can be from anywhere in magazines, newspapers, advertising or even music video.
Archetypes
These are similar to stereotypes but are not usually supposed to be derogatory or negative. Rather than trying to create an ideology about a group of people they are used as a shortcut to help an audience quickly understand what their role in the text is.
However they also illustrate just how underwritten and two dimensional female characters often are. They are used in fictional texts such as TV, film or Video Games to represent a specific type of character within a specific genre.
Here is a list of common archetypes of women used in film and television:
· The Princess
· The Mean Girl
· The Tart with a Heart
· The Gossip
· The Cougar
· The Jealous Girlfriend
The problem with Archetypes is that they are often very shallow and offer little in terms of idiosyncracy or character arc. An example of this would be that of the Manic Pixie Dream Girl. This archetype is often a quirky, alternative character which is an object of desire for the male protagonist. Despite their quirky and unusal appearance they are often passive characters who do nothing to move the plot forward and are merely a device for the male hero (and the audience) to learn more about himself and develop his own character arc.
An example of the Manic Pixie Dream Girl would be Ramona Flowers from the Comic Book movie Scott Pilgrim Vs the World, watch the trailer to see how her character is no more than a tissue thin plot device:
Ramona is the mysterious, confident and quirky object of Scott Pilgrim’s affections. Whilst her arrival in the film is a catalyst for the plot she serves as no more than a way of Scott Pilgrim to develop physically through the necessity to defeat her 7 evil exes. She also gives Pilgrim greater social mobility as her stature makes him more respected and a kudos that he didn’t have before. Her character is also fundamental in his emotional development – initially mistaking the ‘L word’ for ‘Lesbian’ but later revealling in the trailer that he is in love with Ramona.
All of the while Ramona barely utters more than two lines. She might seem unusual but other than her dyed hair we learn little of her as a character and ultimately she is defined not only by the action of the male protagonist but effectively 7 previous ex partners!
RESEARCH POINT: What other Archetypes of women can you find in Film, TV & Video Games – and what is it that makes them fit into that archetype?
The Male Gaze
Not only are female characters in movies underwitten but they are also often objectified through the lens of the camera as outlined by Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze theory. If we break it down we can loosley describe the theory as such:
1. One of the pleasures of cinema is watching people – Mulvey calls this Scopophilia.
2. Audiences are encouraged by directors to identify and empathise with the protagonist of a movie via numerous narrative, visual and audio devices. The protagonist is nearly always male (if you don’t believe me – look at your notes on The Bechdel Test!).
3. The female characters in a movie will be desired by the male protagonist and is often a prize for the hero.
Therefore…
4. The audience are compelled to see the female characters from the protagonist’s point of view. We partake in the desire of female characters regardless of whether or not we as an audience are male or female.
Or in a nutshell… Men are the protagonists and women are the passive objects of their (and our) gaze. Women are objectified, erotisised and often fragmented in their representation.
The trailer entirely objectifies and sexualises most, but particularly, two of the central female characters in the film. They are immediately presented to us in fetishised nurses uniforms, devoid of any sense of functional realism, but uniforms which emphasise cleavage and have thigh length skirts. The film continues to sexualise the female characters with shots of them in their underwear and low angle shots that emphasise their physique. As a series of Medium Close Ups follow the trailer simultaneously eroticises and fragments the female body. Even slowing time down for a cliched shot of one character turning her head to face the camera and flicking long wet hair over her shoulder.
Everything in this trailer compells the audience to not only look at the female characters in a sexualised manner but also to draw attention to the nature of looking. Some jumpcuts which turn into still frames to represent photographs implies that these characters also enjoy looking at themselves in this way.
Pretty soon the trailer establishes itself within the suspense/horror genre which conventionally uses Point of View shots and restricted narration as a way of heightening shock and surprise but also allows for scenes of voyeurism as we watch the female antagonist use sex as a method of luring her victims to their death.
As an audience member we are perfectly safe from her acts and we are well aware of what she is capable of, instead we are encouraged to take the perspective of victim after victim – compelled to continuously see her as a sexual object before being ‘bumped off’ and then inhabiting the next!
RESEARCH POINT: Find examples of film trailers where the male gaze theory could be applied.
Alternative Representations of Women
That’s not to say that all screenwriters are sexist and all female characters are shallow, some movies and their female characters provide audiences with depth, idiosyncrasies and real development. This can often be the remit of science fiction films, but not exclusively.
RESEARCH POINT: Find examples of female representations in film, TV, Pop music or even video games which not only shifts from traditional representations but also avoids cliché and gives the characters a depth that means that they couldn’t be pigeon holed by lazy stereotyping.
Ideology, Hegemony and Mediation
Whose point of view is presented through the text? Those who are in positions of power use that position to communicate their opinions and beliefs. These are usually termed as ‘opinion leaders’. They present, repeat and reiterate a particular viewpoint that then appears to become the norm for some elements of the audience. They can present their point of view as common sense and these ideologies can often go unquestioned. This control and struggle of dominant ideologies is known as Hegemony.
News media is a great way of reinforcing the cultural hegemony and passing off ideologies as simple facts, especially as the new is a source of media that may people implicitly trust. Unfortunately can be a covert way of making sexism and old fashioned traditional values seem like they are accepted common sense.
As enlightened as we may have become, we still live in a world where topless models adorn page 3 of the nation’s biggest selling newspaper and a female news anchor will usually be ‘the young pretty one’. However it’s not just style but often the substance of the news which often mis-represents women or stereotypes them with a specific ideology in mind. The cultural hegemony apparent in our broadcast and printed news often has a message to women that they should ‘know their place!’
Let’s consider a story from the Daily Mail online about young women and antisocial behaviour
To analyse this we can use the theory of Mediation to consider how it has been constructed. If you remember Mediation considers that any representation has gone through a process of…
Selection
Organisation
Focusing
To summarise we can assert that this article represents women can be violent and antisocial, but that, unlike men, this is alien to them and that they are better off in more traditional roles.
Selection:
The representation of women in this article is made to look like a conclusive report. Something that is hard factual information based on a plethora of evidence. However, all of the evidence is simply part of the selection process. We can consider the key elements that have been selected as the words used in the copy, the images and the statistics used to ‘prove’ their points.
The language used is incredibly loaded – the title and in particular the use of the made up word ‘Thugette’ creates an image in the mind that may seem unusual but it also serves to normalise the word ‘Thug’ – it highlights the differences between men and women and creates the idea that the possibility of women being antisocial as completely bizarre. By normalising ‘Thug’ they are putting ‘Thugettes’ further onto the fringes of society.
The selection of the images is particularly fascinating as both pictures act as ‘proof’ of the copy, however closer inspection shows that both have been staged for the article. These pictures have been directed in exactly the same way a movie would be and therefore the connotations of violence, spitefulness, drunken behaviour and irresponsibility have been entirely exaggerated.
Organisation:
The inclusion and phrasing of certain statistics reinforces the ideologies of the article. The way facts are presented could also be conceivably be spun a different way. Saying that the proportion of violent attacks committed by women has risen, is exactly the same as saying that the proportion of violent attacks committed by men has dropped. It’s just that this second way does not serve the ideologies of the story.
The second element worth considering in terms of the organisation of this piece is how the story will place its statistical evidence (often Police figures and numbers) right next to the paper’s own opinions about how: “once young women were a calming effect on men” and this is what brings us to the…
Focus:
The story obviously focuses on a vey negative aspect of what it means to be a young female woman in modern Britain however there is definitely a focus within the article which longs for the past when women had more traditional roles, and even suggests that a woman’s job may have even been to prevent men from fighting with each other! There is an implication that because this violence is often: “booze fuelled” that alcohol is perhaps something best left to the men as well!
RESEARCH POINT: Find examples from news websites of stories that negatively stereotype women and have an implicit ideology that women should adopt more traditional roles in society.
Queer Theory
When we consider gender the roles we must remember that ‘Gender’ is constructed in society and that what it means to be masculine or feminine, or the roles that men and women have in life are based more on ‘Gender’ than they do on biology.
Try and answer the question:
Why do we associate blue with boys and pink with girls?
One colour can’t be more masculine than another. It’s completely invented in our society. Most ‘Gender’ differences are like this. Over time many of these ideas have been broken down, for example the idea that; women are inferior to men or more emotional than men.
Queer Theory
This is less to do with homosexuality and more to do with challenging accepted gender stereotypes and representations of men.
Judith Butler’s basic argument is that:
1. We accept that Gender is a construction and has little to do with the biological differences between men and women.
2. The media perpetuates certain ideologies about men and women that reinforce these differences.
3. Therefore, if there are alternative representations of men & women in the media that challenge the traditional ideologies of gender – then our understanding of gender will also be change.
As an example consider the Model, Celebrity, and Body Builder: Jodie Marsh
And finally, the big question!
The most you will have to write about representation is if it comes up as Question 3.
Before we look at the question, let’s remind ourselves of the theories of representation we have looked at:
· Constructionist Approach
· Stereotyping
· Mediation
· Archetypes
· Ideology
· Queer Theory
Here is what the question will look like:
Now – using the research you’ve done in this booklet and any texts that relate to this topic you have in your media diary. Answer the question covering all of the theories we have looked at. Here are some points of guidance to maximise your marks:
· Write at least 750 words
· Use at least 3 examples (use many more than this and you won’t be writing in enough detail – less than this won’t allow you to provide enough variety).
· Make sure you use examples from different types of media. (Film, Magazines, Newspapers, Video Games, Advertising, Music Videos, Internet, Video Games)
Off you go!
